12.1: Evils of Plagiarism
Plagiarism involves presenting others' ideas and words as one's own without proper acknowledgment. It's considered unethical across various fields, whether intentional or unintentional. Forms of plagiarism include:
Submitting someone else’s work as your own.
Buying papers and presenting them as your own work.
Copying text from sources without citation.
Failing to use quotation marks or proper citation even with source acknowledgment.
Paraphrasing without citing the original source.
Making minimal changes to text (false paraphrasing) and not citing the source.
12.1.1: Reasons for Plagiarism Plagiarism may be 'innocent' or 'stupid' due to a lack of understanding of what constitutes plagiarism, or it can be intentional. Common reasons include time constraints, believing the source articulated it better, or perceiving the task as unimportant. Professional writers or journalists sometimes unintentionally plagiarize when they mistake copied notes for their original thoughts.
12.1.2: Avoiding Plagiarism To avoid plagiarism:
Clearly understand that using or buying someone else’s work is academic fraud.
Always credit original authors for their work, even if you paraphrase their ideas.
Use quotation marks for direct quotes and provide proper citation.
Cite the source when paraphrasing, indicating the use of someone else's ideas.
Ensure that paraphrasing is significantly different from the original text and is duly cited.
12.2: Identifying the Purpose of the Writing
When writing about research, the first step is aligning the presentation with the study's purpose, mirroring the initial step of identifying the research question. This purpose can vary based on the research's aim:
Scientific Writing: If the goal is to advance theory or conceptualization in a certain field, the writing should be directed towards this scientific end.
Applied Research: In disciplines like nursing, policing, or teaching, the writing may focus more on practical applications to improve specific practices.
Policy Discussion: In fields like criminology or justice, research might aim to inform policy debates, necessitating a style that engages with these discussions.
Participatory Action Research: This targets non-academic audiences and may adopt a less formal writing style.
The writing process involves considering three key questions: What is being done, why, and who cares? These questions help define the research's purpose and identify the target audience. Effective dissemination of research findings requires an understanding of the audience's characteristics:
Technical Audience: When targeting a specialized audience, it's crucial to use technical terms and professional jargon relevant to that field.
General Audience: Writing for a broader audience demands a more accessible approach, avoiding unnecessary jargon and assuming no specialized background knowledge.
It's also important to avoid the pitfalls of overusing technical terms or coining new terms unnecessarily. Clear and concise writing is paramount. Remember, a research paper focuses on the topic, not the researcher's personal journey. The paper should convey findings and conclusions relevant to anyone interested in the topic.
12.3: Illustrating the Contents of the Typical Sections of a Research Paper
Research papers generally consist of distinct sections, each contributing essential elements for the reader’s comprehension of the research. These sections, forming the paper's structure, include:
Title: Provides a clear indication of the report's content. It should be straightforward and not overly whimsical, ideally consisting of a main title and a clarifying subtitle.
Abstract: A concise summary of the paper’s main findings, methodological features, and implications, usually 50-200 words. It’s written after the report is completed and provides a quick overview for potential readers.
Introduction: Introduces the research question or problem, setting the stage for the paper. It often outlines the paper's structure and engages the reader with an attention-grabbing opening.
Literature Review: Reviews previous research relevant to the paper’s topic, highlighting existing knowledge and indicating where the current study fits. It should include recent studies and classic works, and not be excessively long.
Methodology: Describes how the research was conducted, including details about subjects, data collection, setting, and analysis techniques. This section should be detailed yet straightforward, explaining the research process clearly.
Findings/Results: In quantitative research, this section presents data through charts, tables, and graphs, often distinguishing between findings (what the data says) and results (interpretation of data). In qualitative research, findings and analysis may be interwoven or presented separately.
Discussion/Conclusion: Discusses the implications of the findings in the context of the literature and the research field. Conclusions extend beyond the study's context to broader implications. The discussion may also include reflexive considerations of the research process.
References, Notes, and Appendices: Documents all sources and claims made in the report. In-text citations are brief, with full details provided in the references section. The format of citations can vary but must be consistent and correct.
12.4: Common Terms and Language in Publications
Researchers and Papers: Researchers write papers, which can be reports or scholarly articles. Reports typically present findings descriptively, while scholarly articles offer in-depth analysis and explanations.
Reports vs. Scholarly Articles: Reports are often produced by agencies or organizations and may undergo internal review. Scholarly articles, submitted to academic journals, undergo a peer-review process where experts anonymously assess the paper's quality before publication.
Peer Review: This process involves journal editors sending the submitted paper to external experts for evaluation. The identity of both the reviewers and authors is concealed to ensure unbiased feedback. Scholarly articles are highly valued due to this rigorous review process.
Journals and Issues: Academic journals publish issues periodically (e.g., annually or quarterly). Each year corresponds to a volume, and for journals with multiple issues per year, each issue is numbered within the volume. For instance, the 2016 issue of an annual journal would be volume 42, while a quarterly journal’s 2016 issues would be volume 31, issues 1–4.
Articles in Journals: Articles are published in specific issues of journals. Referring to articles as "journals" in bibliographies is incorrect. Instead, reference the article itself, not the entire journal.
Citation of Online Articles: When citing articles accessed online, the citation should include standard publication information (author, title, date, journal, volume, issue, page numbers). The medium of access (online) does not change the publication information. URLs and download dates are relevant only for articles published exclusively online.
12.5: Presenting Research Material
Purpose of Dissemination: The primary objective of social research is to address social problems or questions. Disseminating research findings is essential for societal impact and is a professional responsibility of social scientists.
12.5.1: Major Outlets for Dissemination: Two principal channels for disseminating social scientific research are professional association meetings and professional journals.
Professional Meetings: These gatherings, such as conferences organized by associations like the American Sociological Association or the American Society of Criminology, attract large numbers of attendees from diverse facets of a discipline. They provide a platform for presenting new research, networking, and staying updated on recent developments. Special sessions are often organized for student researchers.
Publications in Journals: Publishing research findings in professional journals is crucial for contributing to the field and advancing academic careers. Journals undergo a peer-review process, where manuscripts are anonymously reviewed by experts before publication. This process ensures the quality of published work.
Choosing the Right Journal: Researchers need to identify suitable journals for their work, considering factors like journal focus, publication style, and acceptance criteria. It's important to target the best possible journal that realistically matches the quality of the research.
The Review Process and Ethical Considerations: The peer review process can be lengthy and challenging. Researchers should not submit the same manuscript to multiple journals simultaneously, as it is considered unethical. Inquiries about manuscript status are acceptable after a reasonable waiting period.
Journals for Qualitative Research: Certain journals have a tradition of publishing qualitative research. Researchers should identify and target those journals which align with their research methodology and focus.
In essence, the dissemination of social scientific research through professional meetings and journals is vital for sharing knowledge, contributing to academic and practical fields, and fulfilling the researcher's role in society.
12.6: The Importance of Engaging Research Writing
This section emphasizes the necessity of making research writing not only accurate and well-documented but also engaging and interesting. It challenges the notion that research reports, especially in the social sciences, must be inherently dull. The excitement and fascination inherent in exploring and understanding human behavior and social phenomena should be reflected in the writing.
Key Points:
Intriguing Presentation: The presentation of research findings, whether at conferences or in written reports, should capture the excitement and significance of the research. Boring presentations fail to do justice to the potential intrigue of the subject matter.
Expectation of Interest in Qualitative Research: While quantitative research, with its statistical focus, might be perceived as dry or dense, qualitative research, dealing directly with human experiences and social realities, has no excuse for being dull. The richness and complexity of real-world phenomena should be conveyed in a compelling manner.
Creative and Lively Reporting: Qualitative research offers opportunities for creative and lively reporting. It uncovers new insights and unnoticed aspects of social life, akin to a work of art in its ability to reveal new perspectives.
Avoiding Dullness: The author argues that there are no inherently dull facts in social science, only dull ways of presenting them. The challenge for researchers is to convey their findings in a manner that is both intellectually rigorous and engaging to their audience.
12.7: The Importance of Multiple Drafts in Research Writing
This section emphasizes that effective research writing involves a multi-step process, which includes creating multiple drafts. The idea of "one-draft writing," often sufficient in less rigorous academic environments like high school, is inadequate for higher levels of scholarly research.
Key Points:
Evolution of Writing: Research papers often undergo significant changes from their initial drafts. The final published work may bear little resemblance to the first or even subsequent drafts.
Misconceptions About Writing: Many students, not having seen the process of professional writing, may mistakenly believe that writing involves only minor edits for typographical errors. They often do not realize the necessity of substantive rewriting and incorporating new insights.
Audience-Dependent Writing: In social sciences, writing may need to adapt to various audiences. For instance, the style and depth of writing differ when addressing academic colleagues versus a more general audience, such as a governmental funding agency.
Diverse Forms for Different Audiences: As mentioned by Agar, the same research material may be presented differently depending on the target audience, whether they are clinicians, policymakers, or researchers from other disciplines.
Expressing Ideas Effectively: Finding the right way to phrase ideas can be a challenge. The first attempt might be accurate but dull, or interesting but imprecise. It often takes several revisions to strike the right balance.
Starting Troubles and Revising Beginnings: Writers often struggle with beginning a piece. The initial sections might be weak and require rewriting for the paper to be engaging from the start.
Benefits of Distance: Taking time away from the writing can provide fresh perspectives. Upon returning, writers might find areas needing improvement or, conversely, discover strengths they hadn't recognized.
12.8: A Few Writing Hints
This section highlights frequent errors students make in research paper writing and offers advice on avoiding them:
Date Stamping: Avoid using terms like "recently" or "in recent studies" which can quickly date your work. Instead, provide specific time frames for clarity and relevance.
Vague Referrals: Statements like "Many studies..." or "Some researchers..." are too vague and lack specificity. Always provide concrete references to back up your claims.
Passive Voice: Overuse of passive voice (e.g., "it was done") can obscure who or what is responsible for an action. It's often better to use active voice for clarity and directness.
Long and Run-On Sentences: Run-on sentences can confuse readers. Breaking them into shorter, more concise sentences can enhance readability.
Lazy Word Beginnings: Starting too many sentences with words like "Although," "Since," or "However," can weaken your writing. These words are better used sparingly for connecting thoughts within a sentence.
Word Confusions: Pay attention to commonly confused words, like "affect" (verb) vs. "effect" (noun), and homophones like "there," "their," and "they’re." Using them incorrectly can undermine your paper's credibility.
Rhetorical Questions: While common in creative writing, rhetorical questions are less suitable for scientific writing, which aims to provide answers and evidence. Avoid posing rhetorical questions unless they are immediately addressed with research findings.
12.9: None of This Works
This section emphasizes important aspects to consider in research writing:
Proper Research Design and Planning: Effective research requires clear planning from the outset to the conclusion. Inadequate planning can lead to crucial data gaps, hindering meaningful analysis.
Representative Sampling: While achieving demographic representation in a sample is straightforward, ensuring conceptual representation is crucial. Failing to consider this can skew your data, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
Limitations of Data from Social Artifacts: Researchers are often restricted to available data, which may be influenced by random or systematic factors, such as data loss or historical biases. This can limit the ability to draw unbiased conclusions.
Unverifiable Individual Data: Self-reported data from human subjects can be unreliable due to various factors like misunderstanding, intimidation, or personal reticence. To mitigate this, triangulating data and careful instrument design are essential.
Dynamism in Social Research: The social world is continuously evolving. Even with robust research, the context can change, making findings less relevant over time. This necessitates ongoing research and adaptation.
Navigating the Complexity of Research: Understanding and conducting research requires significant knowledge and awareness of potential errors. Confidence in writing comes from deep understanding and continuous learning in the field.
Works Cited:
Lune, Howard. 2021. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 9th edition. Sage Publications.